Previous research has shown (Francis, Shaywitz, Stuebing, Shaywitz, & Fletcher, 1994), and the results from this study support the notion, that reading difficulties are best characterized by deficits in prerequisite skills that lead to deficits in reading development, rather than by a lag in reading development. Identification of a group of students with persistent deficits over the 3-year period suggests that unless the students acquire the necessary prerequisite skills, they will continue to lag behind.
Boscardin, C.K., Muthén, B, Francis, D.J., Baker, E. (2008). Early Identification of Reading Difficulties Using Heterogeneous Developmental Trajectories. Journal of Educational Psychology. 100 (1) p. 192-208
Skills in this paper was referring to phonemic awareness, word recognition, etc.
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