what the research says

Teacher-led small-group beats peer tutoring

…a best-evidence synthesis of research on the efficacy of peer tutoring for students with high-incidence disabilities (Mathes & Fuchs, 1994) [concluded that] peer tutoring was more effective than typical reading instruction, but it was less effective than one-to-one teacher tutoring or teacher-led small-group instruction.

Al Otaiba, S., & Fuchs, D., (2006). Who are the Young Children for Whom Best Practices in Reading Are Ineffective?: An Experimental and Longitudinal Study. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39 (5), p. 414 – 431.

Interventions: small groups, 15-30 minutes-a-day is optimal

Although not conclusive for making individual student-level decisions, there is compelling research indicating that instruction provided to groups of 3 to 5 students is as effective as 1-to-1 instruction, even for the most at-risk students (Elbaum, Vaughn, Hughes, & Moody, 2000).

Harn,B.A., Linan-Thompson, S., Roberts, G. (2008). Intensifying Instruction: Does Additional Instructional Time Make a Difference for the Most At-Risk First Graders? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41 (2) p.115-125.

And later in the same piece:

In a meta-analysis examining the role of time (both frequency and duration) on the effectiveness of kindergarten interventions, Cavanaugh et al. (2004) documented the great variability of intensity of time in effective interventions. In terms of intensity of time implementation, three of the five interventions that were implemented for fewer than 15 minutes per instructional session resulted in large effect sizes, 1.0 or higher. The majority of interventions were implemented from 15 to 29 minutes (n = 17) and had moderate to large effect sizes. The authors concluded that interventions delivered in small-group formats either two to three times per week or daily for a minimum of 15 to 30 minutes produced the greatest effects.

Harn,B.A., Linan-Thompson, S., Roberts, G. (2008). Intensifying Instruction: Does Additional Instructional Time Make a Difference for the Most At-Risk First Graders? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41 (2) p.115-125.

Small group interventions 15 to 30 minutes long get greatest effects

In a meta-analysis examining the role of time (both frequency and duration) on the effectiveness of kindergarten interventions, Cavanaugh et al. (2004) documented the great variability of intensity of time in effective interventions. In terms of intensity of time implementation, three of the five interventions that were implemented for fewer than 15 minutes per instructional session resulted in large effect sizes, 1.0 or higher. The majority of interventions were implemented from 15 to 29 minutes (n = 17) and had moderate to large effect sizes. The authors concluded that interventions delivered in small-group formats either two to three times per week or daily for a minimum of 15 to 30 minutes produced the greatest effects.

Harn, B.A., Linan-Thompson, S., Roberts, G. (2008). Intensifying Instruction: Does Additional Instructional Time Make a Difference for the Most At-Risk First Graders? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41 (2) p.115-125.

Small groups of 3-5 are as effective as 1-to-1 instruction

Although not conclusive for making individual student-level decisions, there is compelling research indicating that instruction provided to groups of 3 to 5 students is as effective as 1-to-1 instruction, even for the most at-risk students (Elbaum, Vaughn, Hughes, & Moody, 2000).

Harn, B.A., Linan-Thompson, S., Roberts, G. (2008). Intensifying Instruction: Does Additional Instructional Time Make a Difference for the Most At-Risk First Graders? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41 (2) p.115-125.

The problem with basals (opinion)

…commercially available instructional materials are often dressed up to improve their market value but contain irrelevant stimuli that can distract the student from the critical stimuli upon which appropriate discriminations are formed. Too few opportunities to practice the skills are presented... Other times the instructional examples contain too much information and do not require the student to go through the appropriate steps to get the right answer (Vargas, 1984). Too many strategies are frequently suggested by basal reading series to guide the teacher in exactly how to instruct a diverse body of students (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).

Daly, E., Marten, B., Barnett, D., Witt, J., Olson, S. (2007). Varying Intervention Delivery in Response to Intervention: Confronting and Resolving Challenges with Measurement, Instruction and Intensity. School Psychology Review, 36 (4), p. 562-581

A colleague met a teacher at a conference in England. She was surprised at the high (and high-cost) production values of American reading basals. "To me," she said, "it looks like a clown exploded on every page."

Start early

The results of this synthesis further suggest that interventions provided early, beginning in first grade, are associated with higher effects than interventions beginning in second or third grade.

Wanzek, J., & Vaughn, S. (2007). Research-Based Implications From Extensive Early Interventions. School Psychology Review, 36 (4), p.526-540